ABSTRACT:

From the second half of the 20th century, new newspapers were published in the regions where the Turks lived under the Russian Tsarist Rule. Immediately after this activity, Usul-i Cedit/Modern Method schools where courses were given with the new method were started to be opened. Based on the success achieved and the creation of appropriate conditions, these two activities were followed by the political organization and the extension of the political movements accordingly. In this study, the thoughts and actions of Hasan Zerdabi, İsmail Gaspıralı and Alimerdan Topçubaşov, who contributed to the development of the national liberation and enlightenment movement among the Turkish-language speaking peoples living in Russia and which pioneered the formation of the press, modern schools and political movements were discussed. In this study, the transition process of Language, Idea and Unity in Action! formula, which is mentioned by these three great Turks, has been examined.

Keywords: Usul-i Cedit/Modern Method, School, Press, Enlightenment, Political Movement.

INTRODUCTION

In the second half of the 19th century, an enlightenment movement, led by Hasan Zardabi, Ismail Gaspıralı, and Alimerdan Topçubaşov, began with the aim of achieving freedom and independence for the Muslim-Turkic communities living in the territories of the Russian Empire. This movement consisted of three phases. In the first phase, Turkish-language newspapers began to be published one after another in various regions of Tsarist Russia, and these spread rapidly in the geographical areas inhabited by Turkic-speaking peoples. This phase can also be called the "journalism era." Because the intellectuals of the time believed that newspapers played a very important role in the enlightenment of the people, they thought that their impact would be even greater if they were published in the native language. According to them, newspapers not only raised public awareness but also ensured that ideas such as freedom, independence, and the nation-state reached broad masses of people.

Although newspapers made a significant contribution to the enlightenment of the people and the achievement of consensus around a national goal, they were not sufficient to solve the problem in this area. To achieve the desired result, the people needed to be educated. For this reason, there was a need to establish schools that provided education using modern methods. Because it was impossible to achieve serious goals such as freedom and independence with a society that did not know its own history, culture, and national identity. Especially, it was only through educational institutions that the younger generations, who would form the driving force of the struggle in this area, could reach the most correct decisions for their people by reading, writing, and criticizing, and then implementing them. Only modern schools could accomplish such a crucial task. Based on this reality, the second phase of the Enlightenment movement, the period of ‘opening modern schools,’ began, and towards the end of the 19th century, Turks living in Russia established new schools providing contemporary education alongside newspaper publications. In other words, the educational movement was initiated as a continuation of the journalistic movement. From this perspective, it can be said that journalism prepared a suitable ground for the development and advancement of education. In other words, a society made aware of its own destiny through journalistic activity learns how to control its destiny through educational activity. This is, in fact, one of the important goals of the Enlightenment movement.

The expected outcome of activities like publishing newspapers and establishing schools is that the society involved in this process develops a national consciousness. A society that has achieved national consciousness and knows its history and culture will never accept living under the domination of another people. At least, it will not see such an approach as fate. It is this culture that creates and nourishes the ideal of national freedom and independence. Therefore, a people with the ideal of national freedom and independence can achieve its ultimate goal through the political organizations around which it unites. For this reason, the third and final stage of the enlightenment movement is the activity of 'establishing political organizations and other parallel institutions'. The fundamental characteristic of this phase is the initiation of the struggle for national freedom and independence under the leadership of political institutions formed by a society that has acquired national consciousness through the previous two phases, namely the press and modern schools. In other words, the Turks living in Russia first acquired national consciousness through newspapers and schools, and then initiated the struggle for national freedom through the organizations they established.

This study will examine the enlightenment movement that began among the Turkic peoples in Russia, a significant part of the Turkic world, from the second half of the 19th century onwards, within the framework of the phases summarized above. These phases, led by three major thinkers and activists of this period—Hasan Zerdabi, Ismail Gaspıralı, and Alimerdan Topçubaşov—will be discussed under the headings of journalism, schooling, and intellectual movement, respectively.

THE JOURNALISTIC MOVEMENT

In general, the media, and specifically newspapers, play a very important role in creating national consciousness. According to Hasan Zerdabi, one of the leading journalists of the Turkic world, reading newspapers and magazines keeps people informed about the world, teaches them their own language, and enables them to master their religious beliefs. Therefore, all nations strive to avoid disappearing among other nations by publishing newspapers and magazines (quoted by Hasanzade, 2005).

Largely inspired by Hasan Zardabi regarding the general principles of journalistic practice, İsmail Gaspıralı, in a letter sent to Alimerdan Topçubaşov on March 15, 1906, cited the journalistic movement in Japan as an example. Noting that each of the Japanese islands had a different local dialect, Gaspıralı stated that writers and literary figures first began by unifying the language, thereby connecting the thoughts, desires, and actions of the nation along with the language and dialect. He argued that this "unity of language and literature" was a principle applicable to all other areas. He stated that it also formed the basis of the intellectuals. (Kocaoğlu, Issue 287).

As can be understood from these statements, famous Turkish intellectuals living in Russia attached importance to journalism for the enlightenment of the Turkish people. For this purpose, they engaged in intense discussions to establish and carry out journalistic activities systematically and continuously.

The journalistic movement of the Turkic peoples in Russia undoubtedly began in 1875 with the newspaper Ekinci (Farmer). Hasan Zerdabi (1837-1907), the founder and editor of Ekinci, was one of the distinguished intellectuals of Azerbaijan and pioneered in many fields. For example, Zerdabi was one of the first graduates of Turkish origin to receive a doctorate from Moscow University, the first university-educated scientist and teacher in Azerbaijan. He was also the first Azerbaijani teacher at Baku High School and the founder of the Islamic philanthropic movement (Philanthropists Organization - 1872) not only in Azerbaijan but throughout the Muslim East. He was also a cultural figure who, together with his students, staged the first theatrical play in Azerbaijani Turkish in Baku in 1873, pioneered the opening of the first girls' school in Azerbaijan, and was the organizer and chairman of the First Congress for Azerbaijani teachers in 1906.

Following the Ekinci (1875-1877) newspaper, the first publication organ of the 50 million predominantly Muslim and Turkic-speaking people in Russia, the Aydın (Ziyayi Kafkasiye, 1879-1884), Keşkül (1883-1891), and Tercüman (1883-1916), which had the opportunity to reach a much wider area, newspapers began to be published. These newspapers were followed by others, creating a journalistic movement encompassing all regions inhabited by Turks in Russia.

In his article titled "Religion and Language," Zerdabi states: He states that religion and language are among the most important factors that advance a nation, arguing that if one is lost, the nation loses its identity, and if both are lost, it loses its very existence, becoming absorbed into others and disappearing. Within this context, Zardabi believes that the enlightenment of the people cannot be achieved without freedom of thought and the press. Therefore, he dedicated the rest of his life to the enlightenment movement and strived for the creation of a democratic society in Azerbaijan. For this reason, Zardabi is considered the founder of the press, which forms the basis of enlightenment, freedom of thought and expression, charitable organizations established and operating in accordance with Western values, and the Usul-i Cedit schools providing modern education in his country (İbrahimli, 2012: 44).

Ismail Gaspıralı (1851-1914), considered one of the ideologists of the Turkic world, took Zardabi as an example in both journalism and education. Therefore, Gaspıralı; In his memoirs, he always remembered Zerdabi with respect, acknowledging the significant influence of this great figure on his own achievements. He stated that when he began his struggle for the liberation of the Turkic-Muslim world in Russia, he took Hasan Zerdabi and his newspaper, Ekinci, as his role models. In this context, Gaspıralı, in his article "Long Live Hasan Bey, Long Live," written for the 30th anniversary of Ekinci, clearly revealed Zerdabi's importance in his life, saying: "Our esteemed Hasan Bey sowed the first handful of wheat of knowledge. As its saplings, Ziyayi-Kafkasiye and Keşkül emerged in Tiflis. With God's grace, another grain of wheat fell on the Crimean peninsula, and from this, our Tercüman came into being." (ARDA Archive, 39-40).

Zerdabi's wife, Hanife Hanım, also mentions in her memoirs that in 1879, İsmail Gaspıralı, who was trying to publish the first newspaper in the Crimean Tatar language, wrote a letter to Zerdabi asking him to pray for the publication of the newspaper called Tercüman and to lead its management. In response to this letter, Zerdabi said that they would have another newspaper, and in the future, a third, a fourth, and even more newspapers, and expressed his great satisfaction with the success of Tercüman, suggesting to Gaspıralı to avoid using Arabic and Persian words in his newspaper (Melikova, 2006).

Alimerdan Topçubaşov, in his memoirs titled "The Lighthouse of Azerbaijan," provides the following information about the Tercüman newspaper: İsmail Bey (Gaspıralı) often stated that the history of the Turkish press in Russia begins with Ekinci, and Hasanbey Melikzade Zerdabi is the patriarch of this press. Furthermore, Ismail Gaspirali also referred to Hasan Zardabi as his teacher (Rustamov, 2013).

Gaspirali's newspaper, Tercüman, reached a wide audience in Azerbaijan, and the majority of intellectuals subscribed to it. Articles by famous thinkers of the time, such as Ahmet Ağaoğlu and Ali Hüseyinzade, were published in Tercüman. In fact, after Ekinci closed in 1877, there was a serious need for a national newspaper in Azerbaijan. The Tercüman newspaper not only met this need of the Azerbaijani people but also addressed the problems, political issues, of all Turkic peoples, including Azerbaijan. It sought to shed light on the social and economic lives of the Turks. Therefore, it was followed with great interest by the vast majority of Turks in Russia.

The Tercüman newspaper was also patronized by Hacı Zeynelabidin Tağıyev, a wealthy businessman and philanthropist in Azerbaijan at that time. In this regard, Yusuf Akçura, in an article, emphasized the close relationship between the two by stating that "Gaspıralı was the head of Tağıyev" (Shissler, 2005: 169). Indeed, a letter Tağıyev sent to Gaspıralı in 1908 clarifies this relationship. In this letter, filled with respectful expressions, Tağıyev stated, "Your services are countless. If your services were counted, the quarter-century cultural history of Russian Muslims could be written" (Shissler, 2005: 170). Azerbaijani historian Jamil Hasanli states that Yusuf Akçura played a significant role in shaping Gasprinsky's intellectual life. Indeed, Gasprinsky, nourished by Akçura's ideas, adopted the slogan "Unity in Language, Thought, and Action!", which became a focal point for all Turkic peoples in Russia seeking solutions to their unfavorable circumstances (Hasanli, 2013: 65).

One of the regions that Tercüman focused on was Turkestan. This was because Gasprinsky devoted special attention to both the state of agriculture there and the oppressive educational policies of Tsarist Russia. Gasprinsky objected to the Russian administration's policies in both areas. According to him, it was wrong for the administration to divide and pit Turkic peoples against each other based on ethnicity. In other words, it was pointless to divide and pit against each other the peoples of Turkestan, who shared the same religion and ethnic origins.

The first reaction to Gaspıralı's policies came from Nikolay Ilminski, considered the chief ideologue of the anti-Muslim policy in the Russian Tsardom.

During this period, Ilminski, who was trying to establish the scientific foundations of the Christianization of Muslims, drew attention to the great danger that arose by stating in his letter to the Council of Ministers in St. Petersburg that Ismail Gaspıralı's main goal was to establish a European education system among Russian Muslims while preserving the Islamic faith, to unite the numerous dialects spoken by Russian Muslims into a single language, and especially to create a common Turkic language for all Muslims of Turkic descent (Muradov, 2010). To confirm the validity of his claim, Ilminski made a comparison between the goal Gaspıralı was trying to achieve and the German unification that had recently been achieved.

The circulation of Tercüman, which was initially printed in 300 copies, reached 20,000 after a few years and it became the common newspaper of all Turks. However, Gasprinsky's desire for Turkish to be the common literary language among the Turkic peoples of Russia, and his efforts to spread the idea of ​​establishing a Muslim Turkic Union, seriously disturbed the Russian administration. Despite this discomfort, Gasprinsky did not change his stance. According to him, if Turkic unity was to be achieved, unity in language should be achieved first. Indeed, the reason why the Turkic nation could not establish unity in the geography from the Great Wall of China to the White Sea was primarily the lack of a common Turkic language. To remedy this, a common language should be created among the Turkic peoples of Russia, newspapers should be published in this language, and, most importantly, education in schools should also be conducted in this common language.

The renowned Turkologist Ahmed Caferoğlu, in a study addressing the issue of linguistic unity among the Turkic peoples of Russia, claimed that the idea of ​​a common Turkic language was first put forward by Mirza Kazım Bey, and that this idea was later adopted by Gasprinsky, who initiated such an endeavor on behalf of the Turkic peoples of Russia. Even if this claim is true, the implementation of this idea is entirely Gasprinsky's work. Indeed, in his article titled "Our Press," Gasprinsky stated the following:

"The language issue is not merely a literary problem. Perhaps it is more of a social and political issue. For those familiar with literature, history, ethnography, and political science, this is crystal clear. A people or nation without a literary language, even if it has 5-10 million, or even 100 million people, is still not considered a nation. Language separation is more serious and harmful than geographical separation (Shissler, 2005: 169)."

Gaprinsky, who understood the content of the Russian Tsardom's "Russification policy" very well, considered the strategies of creating a Russian nation by changing the consciousness of the Turkic peoples of Russia as a ridiculous undertaking. According to him, the Turkic peoples of Russia have a history and culture spanning thousands of years. The Russian administration did not bring a new culture to the Turkic-Tatar peoples; on the contrary, it tried to take away, or even destroy, their existing culture. Therefore, Russifying the Turks is impossible. Gasprinsky claimed that the Russian education system was stillborn for the Tatar people. Because, according to the Russian education system, the language of instruction is Russian, which is also the official language. It is envisioned that education in Russian will lead to a faster dissemination of knowledge among the public. However... In primary, secondary, and small art schools, education in the Tatar language was possible. Seeing that the true intention of the Russian administration in the field of education was assimilation, Gasprinsky objected to this situation and thus played a significant role in the awakening not only of Crimean Turks but of all Turkic peoples in Russia.

The Tercüman newspaper, an effective vehicle in Gasprinsky's role, did not only operate among Turks and Muslims living in Russia. This newspaper operated in more than 40 cities, from the Ottoman Empire to North Africa, India, and Central Asia, and allowed the publication of articles by writers living in these regions. In this context, Fuat Köprülü, in his article published in 1933 on the 50th anniversary of the Tercüman newspaper's publication, emphasized Gasprinsky's role and its importance in the Turkish enlightenment in Russia with the following words. “Ismail Gaspıralı played the most important role in the ‘national and cultural Renaissance’ of millions of Turks living within the former Tsardom of Russia over the last 40-50 years, dedicating his entire life to this work and persevering through thousands of obstacles without faltering” (Köprülüzade, 1933: 16).

Ahmet Ağaoğlu, of Azerbaijani origin and one of the most important representatives of the Turkism movement in Istanbul, is among the thinkers who greatly appreciated Gaspıralı's services for the enlightenment of Turks in Russia. Ağaoğlu stated the following regarding this matter:

Gaspıralı, along with his family, served as both a writer, typesetter, reporter, and newsman. To get his newspaper read, İsmail Bey had to visit Crimea, the Caucasus, Turkestan, Bukhara, Kazan, and Orenburg many times, going door to door. The newspaper flowed drop by drop, and each drop slowly cultivated fresh, beautiful flowers everywhere. The translator's language was understood from Kazan to the Caucasus, from Crimea to Turkestan. This was a great talent. With this, the deceased had accomplished the first paragraph of his formula. Turks were beginning to understand each other everywhere (Tahirli, 2011: 244). Gaspıralı also made strategic observations on the alphabet, a serious political and strategic issue, concerning all areas of political, social, and cultural life.

EDUCATION MOVEMENT

All three thinkers of the enlightenment movement among the Turks in Russia considered the upbringing of a modern and enlightened generation as essential as air and water for national development. According to them, if the people were not enlightened and freed from ignorance, the Muslim world faced the danger of extinction. Therefore, the three leaders drew attention to the danger that 'Muslims distancing themselves from knowledge as if fleeing from a plague' could result in a great catastrophe.

Given the urgency of the aforementioned danger, Ismail Gasprinsky first expressed his thoughts on saving his nation from this predicament in his extensive and comprehensive article, "The Muslims of Russia." In this article, Gasprinsky stated that new schools should be opened in major Muslim settlements in Russia such as Baku, Bakhchisaray, Ufa, Orenburg, Astrakhan, Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara. Furthermore, he argued that within a few years, education in these schools should be provided by knowledgeable academics replacing the ulema (religious scholars), and by enlightened teachers replacing traditional religious teachers.

Based on these ideas, Gasprinsky, much like Zardabi who pioneered the first newspaper in the history of Turks living in Russia, spearheaded the opening of the first modern school. Believing that a modern school would lead his nation to salvation, Gasprinsky opened a school different from traditional schools in January 1884. This school, operating with new methods, achieved positive results in practice, and students quickly learned to read and write. Gasprinsky's reform of the education system was accepted and named "Usul-i Cedit" (New Method). This system was considered the most effective method for solving the education problem among the Russian Muslims, where ignorance prevailed. In these two-year schools, the academic year consisted of 9 months. A week had 5 lesson days, and each lesson was 45 minutes long. This system, which seemed simple at first glance, and the innovations it brought, were actually a cultural revolution for society. The old system was completely overturned. According to Gasprinsky, the old education system, which lasted 6 months of the year, 3 hours a day, without supervision, exams, or discipline, took 15-20 years. As a result, neither the Arabic language was learned nor the Turkish language was developed. In this system, the knowledge acquired through education was not confirmed by exams. Students were excessively preoccupied with daily problems. They were generally accustomed to the subject of zakat and charity. Teachers' salaries were quite low. Gasprinsky saw the solution to this very difficult problem in the implementation of reforms. He not only talks about reforms, but also puts his ideas into practice. It was carving. This educational reform and socio-political movement, known in history as ‘Jadiism,’ gained considerable popularity towards the end of the 19th century and spread from Crimea to the Volga, the Urals, and the Caucasus, finding followers even in Central Asia and India. So much so that by September 12, 1913, the number of schools under this umbrella was around 700 in Russia alone (Tahirli, 2011: 244).

Feridun Kocherli, considered one of Azerbaijan's renowned educational experts, personally visited Gasprinsky's educational institutions and observed his work firsthand. Köçerli states that in 1890, together with Seferali Velibeyov, a teacher at the Gori Boarding School, they visited Crimea, specifically Bakhchisaray, where İsmail Bey lived. There, Gaspıralı introduced them to a school that provided education using a new method, and during this visit, which lasted more than ten days, they had the opportunity to meet many famous educators of Bakhchisaray (Tahirova, 2014; 12).

Gaspıralı was an expert who believed that social transformation could only be achieved through education. He addressed his views on this subject in his article "The Eastern Question," published in Tercüman in 1895. According to him, the West achieved progress by following the path of education. In this respect, the East has no other option but to follow the same path to solve its backwardness in this area. In this sense, the Eastern question is a matter that can only be solved through education. To better understand this issue, Gaspıralı first highlighted the differences in education between Western and Eastern nations. In this context, Europe achieved its development in the field of education by weakening the Church's authority in this area. However, the development of education in Eastern countries depends on improving the status of Islamic scholars. The wisdom behind this stems from the significant difference in the thought structures of the Church authorities in the West and the scholars of the East. This difference can be better understood by looking at Islamic history. For example, the East, from the "Golden Age" to the Mongol invasions, was truly a garden of knowledge. Imam al-Basri, al-Ghazali, Ibn Sina, al-Farabi, al-Bukhari, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, and many others are all fruits of this garden. Also during this period, merchant ships belonging to Islamic countries sailed freely both in the West and in other parts of the world. Muslims had penetrated as far as the Ural Mountains and Siberia. Islamic scholars, mingling among Bedouins and Zoroastrians, spent their lives giving cultural and religious advice. (Gaspıralı, 1883).

In his work, "The Scholars of Turkestan," Gasprinsky drew attention to the role and contributions of Turks to the scientific world. He argued that research into Islamic philosophy and the history of science would reveal that many scientists were Turkish and from Turkestan. According to him, Turkish scholars and Muslims once received secular science and education, just as they do today. While secular sciences developed more recently in Europe, independent rational and transmitted sciences always existed in Turkestan. Thus, Gasprinsky, while expressing that Turks played important roles in the development of Islam, also wanted to show that they were always a secular nation. In other words, Gasprinsky's views laid the foundations for a new era of Turkism.

During this period, some thinkers in the East portrayed Islam as the root cause of ignorance and opposed religion. However, Gasprinsky stated that Islam played a significant role in the development of the history of science and argued that acting like Westerners—that is, separating religion from science and political life—was incorrect. Some intellectuals of that era also supported Gasprinsky on this issue, believing that sin lay not in Islam but in superstition, and that it should be eradicated through enlightenment and reforms.

Gasprinsky was also the architect of the idea of ​​creating a common literary Turkish language along with the new types of schools. This great Turkish thinker emphasized that with the opening of new schools, it was necessary for the madrasas to adapt to the new era, and stated that a great responsibility fell on the shoulders of religious scholars for this change. Indeed, instead of being preoccupied with collecting zakat and charity, the ulema should play a leading role in opening new schools in place of the old madrasas. It must be acknowledged that the new schools would actually be the first Turkish schools to provide education in secular sciences. At the same time, a similar struggle to establish schools was underway in Baku by Hasan Zerdabi and Alimerdan Topçubaşov (1862-1934). Within this context, the Mahmud Efendi Ganizade Primary School was opened in Baku for Russian and Turkish students. Inspired by both this new example and Gasprinsky's initiative and especially his support for opening a new school, Zardabi applied to the Baku Governorate in 1896 requesting the opening of a school for Muslim girls. However, the Russian Governor rejected Zardabi's request. He responded negatively to his proposal, stating that he was not politically reliable and was dangerous for the state” (Göyüşov, 2010:176). That same year, Tkorjevski, the director of public schools in Baku and Dagestan provinces, citing the approaching anniversary of Tsar Nicholas II's coronation, deemed it appropriate to open a Muslim girls' school in Baku in honor of this important event on behalf of Russia. Along with Zerdabi and Topçubaşov, Hacı Zeynelabidin Tağıyev, a famous wealthy man from Baku, also actively worked towards the school's opening. After regular efforts and applications, Tağıyev finally received official approval for the school's opening in 1898 and immediately began construction, covering all expenses himself.

In fact, the fact that the school would be named after Alexandra Fyodrovna, the wife of the reigning Tsar Nicholas II, had a significant impact on the approval. Indeed, Alimerdan Topçubaşov, editor of the Russian-language Kaspi Newspaper, published the article on 22 and... In his September 23, 1901 issue, he touched upon the importance of the newly opened "Alexandra Russian Muslim Girls' School." In this article, he stated that it would be quite difficult to expect the Muslim world to continue its existence in the future, especially to successfully continue its struggle in the socio-economic system of modern peoples, without meeting its important needs in this area (Göyüşov, 2010: 176).

The official opening of the aforementioned school took place on October 7, 1901. The first director of the school was Hanife Hanım, the wife of Zerdabi and the mother-in-law of Topçubaşov. In its first academic year, 58 girls aged 8-11 from the Caucasus and various regions of Russia were admitted to the school. 35 of these students were exempted from tuition fees due to their families' poverty. Topçubaşov, who made it a principle to participate in educational activities, wrote in another article regarding the opening of the school: "Everyone who works for the progress of humanity should illuminate this event..." "Celebrating it as a victory over darkness" (Topchubashov, 1901), he stated that this step taken in the field of education was also an important beginning in the fight against ignorance.

Gaspirali, Zardabi, and Topchubashov laid the foundation for the new education system by establishing the first Muslim-Turkish schools, but this event was not limited to Crimea and Azerbaijan. Parallel to these initiatives, a struggle to establish new schools was launched in Turkestan during the same period. Especially after the Tsarist Manifesto of 1905 granted Russian Muslims the right to freedom of expression, social activities towards opening press organizations and schools increased considerably. However, the process in Turkestan was seen to have progressed much slower than in Crimea and Azerbaijan. Seriously disturbed by this situation, Gaspirali frequently had to argue in the press with experts who were the architects of the Russification policy. One of these experts, Ilminski, had prepared a project for the non-Russian population to receive education using the Cyrillic alphabet from the second half of the 19th century onwards and had begun activities to implement it. In 1906, this project, which caused intense debate, was described by Gasprinsky as illogical and degrading. However, in 1911, the State Duma (Parliament) disregarded the criticisms in this area and approved a law stipulating that the education of non-Russian groups should be conducted in Russian. According to this law, there was no literature in local languages, and therefore education in the schools of non-Russian groups had to be in Russian. Gasprinsky, who did not hesitate to criticize this law, argued that Chagatai, one of the oldest languages ​​with a very deep-rooted literature, was very widespread in Turkestan and had a very wide scope. Furthermore, relying on Alisher Navai's view in his work *Muhakamat al-Luqatayn* that the Turkic language was in no way inferior to Persian, he claimed that it was impossible for a people who had given humanity great scholars to be without a language and literature.

During this period, Gasprinsky often had to criticize the state, which frequently tried to prevent the opening of schools. According to him, the state's job was not to prevent the establishment of schools, but to fully support them. On the contrary, it is to lead reforms in this field. In other words, the state is obligated to serve the progress of its nation, not its decline and regression. However, the people, unable to receive the necessary support from the state, had to handle this matter themselves in Turkestan, and new methods of education began to be implemented in numerous schools opened there. (Abdiraşidov, 2011: 22-23).

POLITICAL MOVEMENT

Although the enlightenment movements led by Zardabi, Gaspıralı, and Topçubaşov initially had a cultural character, they later gradually shifted to a political dimension. Newspapers that began operating for the unity of the Turkic world, Usul-i Cedit schools, charitable societies, nationalist movements, and the ideas of national independence influenced the Turkic peoples of Russia. It began to spread increasingly among them. Turkish youth studying in the new high schools and colleges, who had the opportunity to read the numerous newspapers that were being published, began to take more confident steps in political life through enlightenment.

Gaspirali and Topchubashov were both thinkers and activists who conceived and realized the idea of ​​establishing the first political organization of Russian Muslims. Following the suggestions of these two thinkers and activists, the First Congress of Russian Muslims was held on August 15, 1905, under the chairmanship of Gaspirali and Topchubashov, on the semi-open Gustav Struve steamship, under the guise of a Volga River voyage with a group of people.

The Second Congress of Russian Muslims was held in January 1906 at the house of Hasan Hebibullah, a wealthy Muslim from St. Petersburg. Gaspirali and Ibrahimov chaired the first meeting; Topchubashov chaired the subsequent meeting. At the Second Congress, the 22-article charter prepared by Topchubashov was adopted, but the discussion of the program for the formation of political unity was postponed to the Third Congress. According to the adopted charter, a single political party would be established to represent the Muslims of Russia, and this party would function as a unified organization in the political arena. Furthermore, the charter stipulated that the territories inhabited by the Muslims of Russia would be divided into 16 provinces, and that local councils would be established in each province. The Central Committee of the Union was to operate from Baku, which was recognized as the political center of the Muslims of Russia. The selection of Baku as the political center was greatly influenced by Topchubashov's perception as the natural leader of the Muslims of Russia. Gasprinsky's approach towards Topchubashov was also along these lines. He always trusted Topchubashov and believed that, as a great politician, he could lead his people in all matters in the future. Indeed, in a letter he sent to him on June 28, 1906, he clearly expressed his confidence and belief in this matter, saying, "Know that the eyes of the entire Muslim world are on you. Russian history will not forget you. You must be a serious statesman and a man of the people" (Topchubashov, 2012: 144).

The Third Congress of Russian Muslims was held in Nizhny-Novgorod between August 16-21, 1906. More than 800 representatives from regions inhabited by Turkic-Muslim populations in the Russian Tsardom participated in the Congress. The Congress Assembly was chaired by a Presidium composed of Ismail Gasprinsky, Alimerdan Topchubashov, Seyyid Giray Alkin, and Shah Haydar Sirtlanov. Topchubashov was elected as the chairman of the Congress, and Gasprinsky as the vice-chairman. Overall, the Third Congress can be considered the peak of Muslim political movements during the First Russian Revolution, both in terms of the scope of its participants and the content of the issues raised. There are many reasons for this. Perhaps the most important is the condemnation of the Russian government for pursuing a policy of religious discrimination. Despite this negative approach by the Russian government, a telegram was sent to the government inviting representatives from the Duma to participate in the Congress. The issue of education, which constituted the most important agenda item, was seriously discussed, and finally, the charter prepared earlier for political unity was approved. As a result of the Congress, it was decided that the Fourth Congress would be held in Nizhny Novgorod in August 1907, but due to political tensions within the country, it was postponed for a while and held in 1914.

In addition to participating in all political activities aimed at the unification of the Turkic world, Gasprinsky particularly intensified his efforts towards achieving Turkic and Islamic unity from the beginning of the 20th century. For this purpose, he visited Turkish and Muslim countries, holding meetings with important socio-political leaders, primarily statesmen. In this context, he visited Istanbul in 1910 and met with Yusuf İzzeddin Efendi, the heir to the Ottoman throne. In a letter he sent to Topçubaşov regarding this meeting, he stated:

"It has always saddened me that the Turks lost according to their understanding of Ottomanism. But now I am relieved. I met with Crown Prince Yusuf İzzeddin Efendi at his special invitation. I witnessed that he is seriously preparing for the issues before us. Whereas other sultans have not even considered these matters. The Crown Prince is the honorary president of the 'Turkish Association,' a Turkish historical and ethnographic society" (Topçubaşov, 2012, 144).

Unfortunately, Yusuf İzzeddin Efendi committed suicide in 1916, and the newly emerging process of Turkism in the administration came to a halt. Parallel to his efforts to achieve Turkish unity, Gasprinsky also strived for Islamic unity. For example, he was the most important initiator of the World Muslim Congress planned to be held in Cairo in 1907. It is based on the idea of ​​establishing a common institution representing all Muslims, where common problems would be addressed, the most appropriate decisions would be made, and these decisions would be followed up by the said institution. The congress could not convene for various reasons. However, the view that was attempted to be implemented here formed the theoretical basis of the Organization of Islamic Conference, which was later established.

In conclusion, this political movement, which drew its strength from journalism and education, initiated the national independence struggle of the Turkic peoples living in the Russian Tsardom in the early 20th century and ultimately resulted in the establishment of independent states in some regions.

CONCLUSION

From the second half of the 19th century onwards, there was a rapid development in intellectual movements towards freedom and independence among Muslim Turks living in Russia. The intellectuals of the time put forward various proposals on this issue and presented different views and suggestions to achieve these goals. Some emphasized the Russian language and claimed that the enlightenment of Turks in this language would yield beneficial results. Others saw salvation only in education in the national language; Some intellectuals, however, have presented Islam as the source of all existing problems and have advised distancing oneself from it as a solution.

When Muslim Turkic intellectuals in Russia are examined in general, it is possible to group their activities into three categories. The first group of intellectuals focused solely on art and remained outside of practical activities. The second group of intellectuals were constantly involved in practical activities but did not engage in theoretical work. The third and final group of intellectuals were involved in both art and theoretical and practical activities. As can be seen, the leaders of the Enlightenment movement in Russia fall into this last group.

From this perspective, Zerdabi, Gasprinsky, and Topchubashov, on the one hand, spread the idea of ​​pan-Islamism in the name of the unity of Russian Muslims within the scope of theoretical activities, inviting Muslims to approach Islam more seriously, while on the other hand, they tried not to separate Turkism from it. In other words, on the one hand, a call for Turkish-Muslim unity was made, and on the other hand, they were engaged in practical activities that served national awakening. In this context, newspapers were published to foster common understanding, new types of schools were opened to enlighten the public, and political organizations were established to achieve ultimate goals. As a result, these three thinkers and activists, who played an active role in the enlightenment of the Turkic peoples of Russia, adopted the formula of "Unity in Language, Thought, and Action" and dedicated their entire lives to its realization, laying the foundation for national awakening and the struggle for national independence, becoming the elders of this process. They created a perfect unity of theory and practice, laying the foundation for a great movement (journalism, education, and political movement). Azerbaijan achieved its national independence in 1918 by following the path opened by this movement.

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